Outer Space Treaty
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International OwnershipTreaties
Antarctic Treaty System
Law of the Sea
Outer Space Treaty
Moon Treaty
International waters
Extraterrestrial real estate
The Outer Space Treaty, formally known as the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is a treaty that forms the basis of international space law. The treaty was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on January 27, 1967, and entered into force on October 10, 1967. As of 1 January 2008, 98 countries are states-parties to the treaty, while another 27 have signed the treaty but have not yet completed ratification.[1]
Contents
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[edit]Key points of the Treaty
The Outer Space Treaty represents the basic legal framework of international space law. Among its principles, it bars States Parties to the Treaty from placing nuclear weapons or any other weapons of mass destruction in orbit of Earth, installing them on the Moon or any other celestial body, or to otherwise station them in outer space. It exclusively limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes and expressly prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military maneuvers, or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications (Art.IV). However, the Treaty does not prohibit the placement of conventional weapons in orbit. The treaty also states that the exploration of outer space shall be done to benefit all countries and shall be free for exploration and use by all States.
The treaty explicitly forbids any government from claiming a celestial resource such as the Moon or a planet, since they are the Common heritage of mankind.[2]Art. II of the Treaty states that “outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means”. However, the State that launches a space object retains jurisdiction and control over that object. According to Manfred Lachs, jurisdiction and control is the means for a State to conduct a mission of space exploration.[citation needed]The state is also liable for damages caused by their space object and must avoid contaminating space and celestial bodies.
signed and ratified signed only
[edit]Responsibility for activities in space
Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty deals with international responsibility, stating that “the activities of non-governmental entities in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty” and that States Parties shall bear international responsibility for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities.
Following discussions arising from Project West Ford, a consultation clause was inserted in Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty: “A State Party to the Treaty which has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by another State Party in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with act
ivities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment.”
[edit]Follow-ups
- The Moon Treaty of 1979 was meant to be the follow-up to the Outer Space Treaty, but failed to be ratified by any space-faring nation.
- Both the Space Preservation Treaty and the Space Preservation Act are expansions on the ban of weapons in space, being a ban on all weapons, instead of only nuclear and WMDs, but both so far have had minimal success.
[edit]See also
August 16, 2012
Posted by archmichaelangelo |
1967, Cosmic Top Secret. IAEA, Covenants and treaties, info, Timeline, Uncategorized, War in heaven | info, October, October 10 |
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U.S. reclassification program
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The U.S. intelligence community’s secret historical document reclassification program is a project to reclassify certain documents that have already been declassified and released to the public through the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).
[edit] History
The previous declassification Executive Order 12958 signed in 1995, under the Clinton administration, was resisted by officials in the Defense Department and the U.S. intelligence community. The reclassification program was started in the fall of 1999 (Executive Order 13142). Security concerns were heightened by the Wen Ho Lee case, and “alleged” inadvertent release of nuclear secrets by the State Department.[1] 55 boxes of material were removed to the classified storage area on the sixth floor.[2]
It sought to be covert for as long as possible, but was revealed by the National Security Archive in February 2006.[3] By that point over 55,000 pages had already been reclassified, many dating back more than 50 years.
During the George W. Bush administration the scope of the program widened (Executive Order 13292), and was scheduled to end in March 2007.
The program has been criticized by experts, journalists and authors for reclassifying documents, which were in the public domain, where there is no reason to keep secret anymore.[4] An audit indicated that more than one third withdrawn since 1999, did not contain sensitive information.[5]
[edit] See also
[edit] References
[edit] External links
February 15, 2012
Posted by archmichaelangelo |
Crimes against humanity, info, Legislative acts, Major themes, ref, Timeline | declassification, info, reclassification, reclassification program, ref |
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Word Association
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from
Word association)
Word Association is a common word game involving an exchange of words that are associated together. The game is based on the noun phrase word association, meaning “stimulation of an associative pattern by a word”[1] or “the connection and production of other words in response to a given word, done spontaneously as a game, creative technique, or in a psychiatric evaluation.”[2]
[edit] How to play
Once an original word has been chosen, usually randomly or arbitrarily, a player will find a word that they associate with it and make it known to all the players, usually by saying it aloud or writing it down as the next item on a list of words so far used. The next player must then do the same with this previous word. This continues in turns for any length of time, but often word limits are set, so that the game is agreed to end after, for instance, 400 words.
Usually, players write down the next word by merely using the first word that comes to their mind after they hear the previous one. Sometimes however they may put in more thought to find a more creative connection between the words. Exchanges are often fast and sometimes unpredictable (though logical patterns can usually be found without difficulty). Sometimes, a lot of the game’s fun can arise from the seemingly strange or amusing associations that people make between words. It is also found amusing what you can get from an original word, and how they contrast distinctly, for example, from the word “tea” you could get the word “murder”.
The game can be played actively or passively, sometimes taking many weeks to complete, and can in fact be played with any number of players, even one. Example: Soda, Sprite, Fairy, Tinkerbell, Peter Pan, Pans, Skillet, Kitchens, Refrigerator, Drinks, Soda
[edit] Variants
In some games, extra limitations are added, for instance:
- The associations between words must be strictly obvious, rather than the usual “first word that comes to mind”, which can often require explaining to see how it is connected with the previous word.
- Word Disassociation Invented by Mulchie[citation needed] (sometimes called Dissociation) is sometimes played. In this game, the aim is to say a word that is as unrelated as possible to the previous one. In such games, however, it is often found that creativity is lowered and the words stray towards having obvious associations again. There is a song about Word Disassociation by Neil Cicierega (Lemon Demon) on his Damn Skippy album. This game is sometimes known as “Word for Word“.
- Sometimes, repeated words are forbidden or otherwise noted on a separate list for interest.
- A variant with an arbitrary name (sometimes called Ultra Word Association) involves associating words in a grid, where the first word is placed in the top-left, and where each word must be placed adjacent to another one and must associate with all those words adjacent to it.
A game based on the Word Association game which is sometimes popular for informal social gatherings is Bobsledding.
[edit] Example
Here is an example of how a Word Association game might run:
Dog,
Cat,
Fur,
Coat,
Enshroud,
Night,
Eye,
Heart,
Love,
Hate,
Dark
[edit] Psychology
It is believed by some that this game can reveal something of a person’s subconscious mind (as it shows what things they associate together), however some are skeptical of how effective such a technique could be in psychology. However, more often than not, most of the fun of the game comes from observing the erratic links between words, where the amusement comes from wondering how someone else’s mind managed to make such an association.
Often, the game’s goal is to compare the first and final word, to see if they relate, or to see how different they are, or also to see how many words are repeated. Likewise, players often review the list of words to see the pathways of associations that go from beginning to end.
Certain popular psychologists like Derren Brown have shown an ability to predict people’s word associations, and some suggest that humans actually find it very difficult to disassociate words such that they become more predictable when told to do so. For instance, the aforementioned Derren Brown once predicted two words in a sequence of “disassociated” words made by a professional psychologist (after failing twice). Notably, the man disassociated the word “school” with “tie”, where the actual association is quite clear.
Word association has been used by market researchers to ensure the proper message is conveyed by names or adjectives used in promoting a company’s products. For example, James Vicary, working in the 1950s, tested the word ‘lagered’ for a brewing company. While about a third of his subjects associated the word with beer, another third associated it with tiredness, dizzyness and so forth. As a result of the study, Vicary’s client decided not to use the word.[3]
In the early years of psychology, many doctors noted that patients exhibited behavior that they were not in control of. Some part of the personality seemed to have an influence on that person’s behavior that was not in his/her conscious control. This part was, by function, unconscious, and became so named the Unconscious. Carl Jung theorized that people connect ideas, feelings, experiences and information by way of associations…..that ideas and experiences are linked, or grouped, in the unconscious in such a manner as to exert influence over the individual’s behavior. These groupings he named Complexes.
The quest for the early analysts was how to access and free the contents of the unconscious. Early methods of this treatment included hypnosis, dream analysis, and word association. Word association research started as a psychological science with Darwin’s cousin, Sir Francis Galton, who thought that there might be a link between a person’s I.Q. (intelligence quotient) and word associations. A typical association is such: if I say “cat”, you might say “dog”. This indicates that you associate dog with cat, a common association. A common “association test” would be list of trigger words that the person being tested would respond to as quickly as possible. Often these responses were timed, and it became obvious that certain words could cause a considerable delay in the individual’s response. Sir Francis was unable to find a direct link between intelligence and word association, however Jung became curious about the time delay that occurred in responding to certain words. Jung theorized that the delay between stimulus and response indicated some sort of block in self expression. One type of block might be that too many possible answers rush to the surface and create a sort-of expression log-jam, and that one is unable to answer until one sorts out all the possible answers. Another possibility is that the individual feels “uncomfortable” with the response, or that the response is “inappropriate”, thus they resist expressing the answer. This resistance to answer is part of the phenomena that Freud described as repression.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ Dictionary.com
- ^ Dictionary.com’s 21st Century Lexicon
- ^ Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders, Penguin, 1961 paperback edition, p. 129
February 12, 2012
Posted by archmichaelangelo |
Base symbol, info, ref, Semiotics | info, ref |
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rock
[edit] English
[edit] Pronunciation
[edit] Etymology 1
From Middle English rocke, rokke (“rock formation”), from Old English *rocc (“rock”), as in Old English stānrocc (“high stone rock, peak, obelisk”), and Old Northern French roc, roque (Modern French roche), both probably of Celtic origin. Cognate with Irish roc (“rock”), Breton roch (“a rock”).
rock (countable and uncountable; plural rocks)
Solid mineral aggregate (1)
Several rocks of crack cocaine (10)
- (uncountable) The naturally occurring aggregate of solid mineralmatter that constitutes a significant part of the earth’s crust.
- The face of the cliff is solid rock.
- A mass of stone projecting out of the ground or water.
- The ship crashed on the rocks.
- A boulder or large stone.
- Some fool has thrown a rock through my window.
- A large hill or island having no vegetation.
- Pearl Rock near Cape Cod is so named because the morning sun makes it gleam like a pearl.
[quotations ▼]
- (figuratively) Something that is strong, stable, and dependable; a person who provides security or support to another. [quotations ▼]
- (geology) Any natural material with a distinctive composition of minerals.
- (slang) A precious stone or gem, especially a diamond.
- Look at the size of that rock on her finger!
- A lump or cube of ice.
- I’ll have a whisky on the rocks, please.
- (UK, uncountable) A type of confectionerymade from sugar in the shape of a stick, traditionally having some text running through its length.
- While we’re in Brighton, let’s get a stick of rock!
- (US, slang) A crystalized lump of crack cocaine.
- (US, slang) An unintelligent person, especially one who repeats mistakes.
- (South Africa, slang, derogatory) An Afrikaner.
- (US poker, slang) An extremely conservative player who is willing to play only the very strongest hands.
- (basketball, informal) A basketball (ball).
[edit] Synonyms
- (natural mineral aggregate): stone
- (projecting mass of rock): cliff
- (boulder or large stone): boulder, pebble, stone
- (hill or island without vegetation):
- (something strong, stable, and dependable): foundation, support
- (distinctive composition of minerals):
- (precious stone or gem): gem, diamond
- (lump of ice): ice, ice cube
- (confectionery made from sugar):
- (crystalized lump of crack cocaine): crack
- (unintelligent person):
- (Afrikaner): Afrikaner
[edit] Derived terms
[
show ▼]Terms derived from
rock (etymology 1)
[edit] Translations
[
hide ▲]natural mineral aggregate
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- Khmer: ថ្ម (tmor)
- Latin: saxum (la) n, rupes (la) f, silex (la), silex (la) m
- Malay: batu (ms)
- Maltese: ġebla (mt) f
- Manx: carrick (gv) f
- Navajo: tsé
- Norwegian: stein (no) m
- Old English: stān (ang) m
- Persian: تخته سنگ (fa) (taxta(e)sang)
- Polish: skała (pl) f
- Portuguese: rocha (pt) f
- Romanian: stâncă (ro), rocă (ro)
- Russian: (горная) порода (górnaja poróda) f
- Scottish Gaelic: creag (gd) f
- Serbian: stena, kamen, kamenica, skala
- Slovene: skala (sl) f, kamen (sl) m
- Spanish: piedra (es) f, roca (es) f
- Swedish: berg (sv) n, sten (sv) c
- Tagalog: bato (tl)
- Vietnamese: đá (vi)
- Volapük: klif (vo)
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[
hide ▲]mass of projecting rock
[
hide ▲]large stone or boulder
February 11, 2012
Posted by archmichaelangelo |
Base symbol, info, ref, Semiotics | info, ref |
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August 1981 strike
On August 3, 1981, during a press conference regarding the PATCO strike, President Reagan stated: “They are in violation of the law and if they do not report for work within 48 hours they have forfeited their jobs and will be terminated.”
On August 3, 1981 the union declared a strike, seeking better working conditions, better pay and a 32-hour workweek. In doing so, the union violated a law {5 U.S.C. (Supp. III 1956) 118p.} that banned strikes by government unions. Ronald Reagan declared the PATCO strike a “peril to national safety” and ordered them back to work under the terms of the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947. Only 1,300 of the nearly 13,000 controllers returned to work.[4] Subsequently, Reagan demanded those remaining on strike return to work within 48 hours, otherwise their jobs would be forfeited. At the same time Transportation Secretary Drew Lewis organized for replacements and started contingency plans. By prioritizing and cutting flights severely, and even adopting methods of air traffic management PATCO had previously lobbied for, the government was initially able to have 50% of flights available.[4]
On August 5, following the PATCO workers’ refusal to return to work Reagan fired the 11,345 striking air traffic controllers who had ignored the order,[6][7] and banned them from federal service for life (this ban was later rescinded by President Bill Clinton in 1993).[8] In the wake of the strike and mass firings the FAA was faced with the task of hiring and training enough controllers to replace those that had been fired, a hard problem to fix as at the time it took three years in normal conditions to train a new controller.[2] They were replaced initially with nonparticipating controllers, supervisors, staff personnel, some nonrated personnel, and in some cases by controllers transferred temporarily from other facilities. Some military controllers were also used until replacements could be trained. The FAA had initially claimed that staffing levels would be restored within two years; however, it would take closer to ten years before the overall staffing levels returned to normal.[2] PATCO was decertified on October 22, 1981.[9]
Some former striking controllers were allowed to reapply after 1986 and were rehired; they and their replacements are now represented by the National Air Traffic Controllers Association, which was organized in 1987 and had no connection with PATCO.
January 13, 2012
Posted by archmichaelangelo |
A, info, ref, Uncategorized | A, info, ref, spacecrafts |
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Powers and Principalities 