HIRED UNDER CONSPIRACY

Hired under conspiracy

Sept Annual convening of the united nation in New York with heads of state in attendance

7/30/1990/1991(Hired under conspiracy, Kuwait, Desert storm) and Orchestrations

Preexisting Criminal Enterprise, Preexisting Fraudulent Enterprise

7/30/90 Hiring Date, 8/02/90 invasion of Kuwait (timing)

[Webster Hubbell] Surveillance theft with federal employment as a fabrication of involvement

9/11/90 Pres. Bush New World Order Speech

1990 [Danny Lee] Rollins Gainesville Mass Murder

1990 103° degree Fever, Incident of Suspected poisoning

Tiananamen square timing to conversation (rewritten accounts placed it 1n 89′)

1991 Christmas day coup in Russia, 1990 reunification of Germany indicative of ulterior concerns)

Approx. 1/15/91 Federal Jury Duty and deadline to withdraw from Kuwait [Miami Beach zip codes 33139 and 33140 completed (including Star Island)] (timing) 5 ½ months [token presence, fabrication of actions regarding murders, invasion, or War)], Prosecutor believed to be same as at pretrial civil conference (orchestrated presence) US District Court 95′ (Graff and Levy) not given scheduled pretrial civil conference

Juror drove by on Palmetto curve on a morning after work

Smear conspiracy, infectious disease, Dual floor from EEO( custom tailored), me “what does bien vierte mean”(taxi and airport note), ..5^th day Xavier Migenis ” I’m here to protect you.

 Contact means what should have been understood. Criminal conspiracy over word choice under abusive circumstances regarding an incident organized and orchestrated by the government and utilized classified drugs 
fallout- slandered to the UN (September), New York police attacked Taxi driver, Bob Dole does viagra commercial, drunken pilots, and a 15 year ear and joint infection

HIRED UNDER CONSPIRACY

Hired under conspiracy

Sept Annual convening of the united nation in New York with heads of state in attendance

7/30/1990/1991(Hired under conspiracy, Kuwait, Desert storm) and Orchestrations

Preexisting Criminal Enterprise, Preexisting Fraudulent Enterprise

7/30/90 Hiring Date, 8/02/90 invasion of Kuwait (timing)

[Webster Hubbell] Surveillance theft with federal employment as a fabrication of involvement

9/11/90 Pres. Bush New World Order Speech

1990 [Danny Lee] Rollins Gainesville Mass Murder

1990 103° degree Fever, Incident of Suspected poisoning

Tiananamen square timing to conversation (rewritten accounts placed it 1n 89′)

1991 Christmas day coup in Russia, 1990 reunification of Germany indicative of ulterior concerns)

Approx. 1/15/91 Federal Jury Duty and deadline to withdraw from Kuwait [Miami Beach zip codes 33139 and 33140 completed (including Star Island)] (timing) 5 ½ months [token presence, fabrication of actions regarding murders, invasion, or War)], Prosecutor believed to be same as at pretrial civil conference (orchestrated presence) US District Court 95′ (Graff and Levy) not given scheduled pretrial civil conference

Juror drove by on Palmetto curve on a morning after work

Smear conspiracy, infectious disease, Dual floor from EEO( custom tailored), me “what does bien vierte mean”(taxi and airport note), ..5^th day Xavier Migenis ” I’m here to protect you.

 Contact means what should have been understood. Criminal conspiracy over word choice under abusive circumstances regarding an incident organized and orchestrated by the government and utilized classified drugs 
fallout- slandered to the UN (September), New York police attacked Taxi driver, Bob Dole does viagra commercial, drunken pilots, and a 15 year ear and joint infection

Haleigh Cummings;

• Haleigh Cummings; the child, according to news reports from CNN and other major television news sources, was being watched by an acquaintance of her father, Ronald Cummings; when she disappeared from the mobile home in Satsuma, Florida in February 2009. Two persons of interest in the still unsolved kidnapping were implicated in a drug sting in January 2010, renewing interest in the case.^[3]

History of LSD (1938)

Henry David Thoreau (philosophy)

Henry David Thoreau

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Henry David Thoreau

Maxham daguerreotype of Henry David Thoreau made in 1856
Full name	Henry David Thoreau
Born	July 12, 1817(1817-07-12) Concord, Massachusetts
Died	May 6, 1862(1862-05-06) (aged 44) Concord, Massachusetts
Era	19th century philosophy
Region	Western Philosophy
School	Transcendentalism
Main interests	Natural history
Notable ideas	Abolitionism, tax resistance, development criticism, civil disobedience, conscientious objection, direct action, environmentalism, nonviolent resistance, simple living

Henry David Thoreau (born David Henry Thoreau; July 12, 1817 – May 6, 1862) was an American author, poet, abolitionist, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay, Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state.
Thoreau’s books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry total over 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions were his writings on natural history and philosophy, where he anticipated the methods and findings of ecology and environmental history, two sources of modern day environmentalism. His literary style interweaves close natural observation, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, symbolic meanings, and historical lore; while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophical austerity, and “Yankee” love of practical detail.^[1] He was also deeply interested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historical change, and natural decay; at the same time imploring one to abandon waste and illusion in order to discover life’s true essential needs.^[1]
He was a lifelong abolitionist, delivering lectures that attacked the Fugitive Slave Law while praising the writings of Wendell Phillips and defending abolitionist John Brown. Thoreau’s philosophy of civil disobedience influenced the political thoughts and actions of such later figures as Leo Tolstoy, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther King, Jr.
Thoreau is sometimes cited as an individualist anarchist.^[2] Though Civil Disobedience seems to call for improving rather than abolishing government – “I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government”^[3] – the direction of this improvement aims at anarchism: “‘That government is best which governs not at all;’ and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have.”^[3] Richard Drinnon partly blames Thoreau for the ambiguity, noting that Thoreau’s “sly satire, his liking for wide margins for his writing, and his fondness for paradox provided ammunition for widely divergent interpretations of ‘Civil Disobedience.'” He further points out that although Thoreau writes that he only wants “at once” a better government, that does not rule out the possibility that a little later he might favor no government.^[4]

Contents [show] 1 Early life and education 2 Return to Concord: 1837–1841 3 Civil Disobedience and the Walden years: 1845–1849 4 Later years: 1851–1862 5 Death 6 Beliefs 7 Influence 7.1 Anarchism 8 Critique 9 Works 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links 13.1 Texts 13.2 Manuscripts 13.3 Other links

[edit] Early life and education

He was born David Henry Thoreau^[5] in Concord, Massachusetts, to John Thoreau (a pencil maker) and Cynthia Dunbar. His paternal grandfather was of French origin and was born in Jersey.^[6] His maternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, led Harvard’s 1766 student “Butter Rebellion“,^[7] the first recorded student protest in the Colonies.^[8] David Henry was named after a recently deceased paternal uncle, David Thoreau. He did not become “Henry David” until after college, although he never petitioned to make a legal name change.^[9] He had two older siblings, Helen and John Jr., and a younger sister, Sophia.^[10]Thoreau’s birthplacestill exists on Virginia Road in Concord and is currently the focus of preservation efforts. The house is original, but it now stands about 100 yards away from its first site.

Portrait of Thoreau from 1854

Amos Bronson Alcott and Thoreau’s aunt each wrote that “Thoreau” is pronounced like the word “thorough

“, whose standard American pronunciation rhymes with “furrow”.^[11] Edward Emerson wrote that the name should be pronounced “Thó-row, the h sounded, and accent on the first syllable.”^[12] In appearance he was homely, with a nose that he called “my most prominent feature.”^[13] Of his face, Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote: “[Thoreau] is as ugly as sin, long-nosed, queer-mouthed, and with uncouth and rustic, though courteous manners, corresponding very well with such an exterior. But his ugliness is of an honest and agreeable fashion, and becomes him much better than beauty.”^[14] Thoreau also wore a neck-beard for many years, which he insisted many women found attractive.^[15] However, Louisa May Alcott mentioned to Ralph Waldo Emerson that Thoreau’s facial hair “will most assuredly deflect amorous advances and preserve the man’s virtue in perpetuity.”^[15]
Thoreau studied at Harvard University between 1833 and 1837. He lived in Hollis Hall and took courses in rhetoric, classics, philosophy, mathematics, and science. A legend proposes that Thoreau refused to pay the five-dollar fee for a Harvard diploma. In fact, the master’s degree he declined to purchase had no academic merit: Harvard College offered it to graduates “who proved their physical worth by being alive three years after graduating, and their saving, earning, or inheriting quality or condition by having Five Dollars to give the college.”^[16] His comment was: “Let every sheep keep its own skin”,^[17] a reference to the tradition of diplomas being written on sheepskin vellum.

[edit] Return to Concord: 1837–1841

The traditional professions open to college graduates—law, the church, business, medicine—failed to interest Thoreau,^[18]:25 so in 1835 he took a leave of absence from Harvard, during which he taught school in Canton, Massachusetts. After he graduated in 1837, he joined the faculty of the Concord public school, but resigned after a few weeks rather than administer corporal punishment.^[18]:25 He and his brother John then opened a grammar school in Concord in 1838 called Concord Academy.^[18]:25 They introduced several progressive concepts, including nature walks and visits to local shops and businesses. The school ended when John became fatally ill from tetanus in 1842^[19] after cutting himself while shaving. He died in his brother Henry’s arms.^[20]
Upon graduation Thoreau returned home to Concord, where he met Ralph Waldo Emerson. Emerson took a paternal and at times patronizing interest in Thoreau, advising the young man and introducing him to a circle of local writers and thinkers, including Ellery Channing, Margaret Fuller, Bronson Alcott, and Nathaniel Hawthorne and his son Julian Hawthorne, who was a boy at the time.
Emerson urged Thoreau to contribute essays and poems to a quarterly periodical, The Dial, and Emerson lobbied editor Margaret Fuller to publish those writings. Thoreau’s first essay published there was Aulus Persius Flaccus, an essay on the playwright of the same name, published in The Dial in July 1840.^[21] It consisted of revised passages from his journal, which he had begun keeping at Emerson’s suggestion. The first journal entry on October 22, 1837, reads, “‘What are you doing now?’ he asked. ‘Do you keep a journal?’ So I make my first entry to-day.”^[22]
Thoreau was a philosopher of nature and its relation to the human condition. In his early years he followed Transcendentalism, a loose and eclectic idealist philosophy advocated by Emerson, Fuller, and Alcott. They held that an ideal spiritual state transcends, or goes beyond, the physical and empirical, and that one achieves that insight via personal intuition rather than religious doctrine. In their view, Nature is the outward sign of inward spirit, expressing the “radical correspondence of visible things and human thoughts,” as Emerson wrote in Nature(1836).

1967 U.S. postage stamp honoring Thoreau

On April 18, 1841, Thoreau moved into the Emerson house.^[23] There, from 1841–1844, he served as the children’s tutor, editorial assistant, and repair man/gardener. For a few months in 1843, he moved to the home of William Emerson on Staten Island,^[24] and tutored the family sons while seeking contacts among literary men and journalists in the city who might help publish his writings, including his future literary representative Horace Greeley.^[25]:68
Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family’s pencil factory, which he continued to do for most of his adult life. He rediscovered the process to make a good pencil out of inferior graphite by using clay as the binder; this invention improved upon graphite found in New Hampshire and bought in 1821 by relative Charles Dunbar. (The process of mixing graphite and clay, known as the Conté process, was patented by Nicolas-Jacques Conté in 1795). His other source had been Tantiusques, an Indian operated mine in Sturbridge, Massachusetts. Later, Thoreau converted the factory to produce plumbago (graphite), which was used to ink typesetting machines.^[26]
Once back in Concord, Thoreau went through a restless period. In April 1844 he and his friend Edward Hoar accidentally set a fire that consumed 300 acres (1.2 km²) of Walden Woods.^[27] He spoke often of finding a farm to buy or lease, which he felt would give him a means to support himself while also providing enough solitude to write his first book^{[citation needed]}.

[edit] Civil Disobedience and the Walden years: 1845–1849

Thoreau needed to concentrate and get himself working more on his writing^{[citation needed]}. In March 1845, Ellery Channing told Thoreau, “Go out upon that, build yourself a hut, & there begin the grand process of devouring yourself alive. I see no other alternative, no other hope for you.”^[28] Two months later, Thoreau embarked on a two-year experiment in simple living on July 4, 1845, when he moved to a small, self-built house on land owned by Emerson in a second-growth forest around the shores of Walden Pond. The house was in “a pretty pasture and woodlot” of 14 acres (57,000 m²) that Emerson had bought,^[29] 1.5 miles (2.4 km) from his family home.^[30]
On July 24 or July 25, 1846, Thoreau ran into the local tax collector, Sam Staples, who asked him to pay six years of delinquent poll taxes. Thoreau refused because of his opposition to the Mexican-American War and slavery, and he spent a night in jail because of this refusal. (The next day Thoreau was freed, against his wishes, when his aunt paid his taxes.^[31]) The experience had a strong impact on Thoreau. In January and February 1848, he delivered lectures on “The Rights and Duties of the Individual in relation to Government”^[32] explaining his tax resistance at the Concord Lyceum. Bronson Alcott attended the lecture, writing in his journal on January 26:

Heard Thoreau’s lecture before the Lyceum on the relation of the individual to the State– an admirable statement of the rights of the individual to self-government, and an attentive audience. His allusions to the Mexican War, to Mr. Hoar’s expulsion from Carolina, his own imprisonment in Concord Jail for refusal to pay his tax, Mr. Hoar’s payment of mine when taken to prison for a similar refusal, were all pertinent, well considered, and reasoned. I took great pleasure in this deed of Thoreau’s.

—Bronson Alcott, Journals (1938)^[33]

Thoreau revised the lecture into an essay entitled Resistance to Civil Government (also known as Civil Disobedience). In May 1849 it was published by Elizabeth Peabody in the Aesthetic Papers. Thoreau had taken up a version of Percy Shelley‘s principle in the political poem The Mask of Anarchy (1819), that Shelley begins with the powerful images of the unjust forms of authority of his time – and then imagines the stirrings of a radically new form of social action.^[34]
At Walden Pond, he completed a first draft of A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers, an elegy to his brother, John, that described their 1839 trip to the White Mountains. Thoreau did not find a publisher for this book and instead printed 1,000 copies at his own expense, though fewer than 300 were sold.^[23]:234 Thoreau self-published on the advice of Emerson, using Emerson’s own publisher, Munroe, who did little to publicize the book. Its failure put Thoreau into debt that took years to pay off, and Emerson’s flawed advice caused a schism between the friends that never entirely healed.^{[citation needed]}
In August 1846, Thoreau briefly left Walden to make a trip to Mount Katahdin in Maine, a journey later recorded in “Ktaadn,” the first part of The Maine Woods.
Thoreau left Walden Pond on September 6, 1847.^[23]:244 At Emerson’s request, he immediately moved back into the Emerson house to help Lidian manage the household while her husband was on an extended trip to Europe.^[35] Over several years, he worked to pay off his debts and also continuously revised his manuscript for what, in 1854, he would publish as Walden, or Life in the Woods, recounting the two years, two months, and two days he had spent at Walden Pond. The book compresses that time into a single calendar year, using the passage of four seasons to symbolize human development. Part memoir and part spiritual quest, Walden at first won few admirers, but later critics have regarded it as a classic American work that explores natural simplicity, harmony, and beauty as models for just social and cultural conditions.
American poet Robert Frost wrote of Thoreau, “In one book … he surpasses everything we have had in America.”^[36]
John Updike wrote in 2004,

“

A century and a half after its publication, Walden has become such a totem of the back-to-nature, preservationist, anti-business, civil-disobedience mindset, and Thoreau so vivid a protester, so perfect a crank and hermit saint, that the book risks being as revered and unread as the Bible.[37]

”

Thoreau moved out of Emerson’s house in July 1848 and stayed at a home on Belknap Street nearby. In 1850, he and his family moved into a home at 255 Main Street; he stayed there until his death.^[38]

[edit] Later years: 1851–1862

Henry David Thoreau, taken August 1861

In 1851, Thoreau became increasingly fascinated with natural history and travel/expedition narratives. He read avidly on botany and often wrote observations on this topic into his journal. He admired William Bartram, and Charles Darwin‘s Voyage of the Beagle. He kept detailed observations on Concord’s nature lore, recording everything from how the fruit ripened over time to the fluctuating depths of Walden Pond and the days certain birds migrated. The point of this task was to “anticipate” the seasons of nature, in his words.^[39][40]
He became a land surveyor and continued to write increasingly detailed natural history observations about the 26 square miles (67 km²) township in his journal, a two-million word document he kept for 24 years. He also kept a series of notebooks, and these observations became the source for Thoreau’s late natural history writings, such as Autumnal Tints, The Succession of Trees, and Wild Apples, an essay lamenting the destruction of indigenous and wild apple species.
Until the 1970s, litera

ry critics^[who?] dismissed Thoreau’s late pursuits as amateur science and philosophy. With the rise of environmental history and ecocriticism, several new readings^[who?] of this matter began to emerge, showing Thoreau to be both a philosopher and an analyst of ecological patterns in fields and woodlots. For instance, his late essay, “The Succession of Forest Trees,” shows that he used experimentation and analysis to explain how forests regenerate after fire or human destruction, through dispersal by seed-bearing winds or animals.
He traveled to Quebec once, Cape Cod four times, and Maine three times; these landscapes inspired his “excursion” books, A Yankee in Canada, Cape Cod, and The Maine Woods, in which travel itineraries frame his thoughts about geography, history and philosophy. Other travels took him southwest to Philadelphia and New York City in 1854, and west across the Great Lakes region in 1861, visiting Niagara Falls, Detroit, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Mackinac Island.^[41] Although provincial in his physical travels, he was extraordinarily well-read and vicariously a world traveler. He obsessively devoured all the first-hand travel accounts available in his day, at a time when the last unmapped regions of the earth were being explored. He read Magellan and Cook, the arctic explorers Franklin, Mackenzie and Parry, Darwin’s account of his voyage on the Beagle, Livingstone and Burton on Africa, Lewis and Clark; and hundreds of lesser-known works by explorers and literate travelers.^[42] Astonishing amounts of global reading fed his endless curiosity about the peoples, cultures, religions and natural history of the world, and left its traces as commentaries in his voluminous journals. He processed everything he read, in the local laboratory of his Concord experience. Among his famous aphorisms is his advice to “live at home like a traveler.”^[43]
After John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry, many prominent voices in the abolitionist movement distanced themselves from Brown, or damned him with faint praise. Thoreau was disgusted by this, and he composed a speech – A Plea for Captain John Brown – which was uncompromising in its defense of Brown and his actions. Thoreau’s speech proved persuasive: first the abolitionist movement began to accept Brown as a martyr, and by the time of the American Civil War entire armies of the North were literally singing Brown’s praises. As a contemporary biographer of John Brown put it: “If, as Alfred Kazin suggests, without John Brown there would have been no Civil War, we would add that without the Concord Transcendentalists, John Brown would have had little cultural impact.”^[44]

[edit] Death

Thoreau contracted tuberculosis in 1835 and suffered from it sporadically afterwards. In 1859, following a late night excursion to count the rings of tree stumps during a rain storm, he became ill with bronchitis. His health declined over three years with brief periods of remission, until he eventually became bedridden. Recognizing the terminal nature of his disease, Thoreau spent his last years revising and editing his unpublished works, particularly The Maine Woods and Excursions, and petitioning publishers to print revised editions of A Week and Walden. He also wrote letters and journal entries until he became too weak to continue. His friends were alarmed at his diminished appearance and were fascinated by his tranquil acceptance of death. When his aunt Louisa asked him in his last weeks if he had made his peace with God, Thoreau responded: “I did not know we had ever quarreled.”^[45]
Aware he was dying, Thoreau’s last words were “Now comes good sailing”, followed by two lone words, “moose” and “Indian”.^[46] He died on May 6, 1862 at age 44. Bronson Alcott planned the service and read selections from Thoreau’s works, and Channing presented a hymn.^[47] Emerson wrote the eulogy spoken at his funeral.^[48] Originally buried in the Dunbar family plot, he and members of his immediate family were eventually moved to Sleepy Hollow Cemetery (N42° 27′ 53.7″ W71° 20′ 33″) in Concord, Massachusetts.
Thoreau’s friend Ellery Channing published his first biography, Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist, in 1873, and Channing and another friend Harrison Blake edited some poems, essays, and
journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s. Thoreau’s journals, which he often mined for his published works but which remained largely unpublished at his death, were first published in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation. A new, expanded edition of the journals is underway, published by Princeton University Press. Today, Thoreau is regarded^[who?] as one of the foremost American writers, both for the modern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by the international Thoreau Society.

Thoreau family graves at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

Replica of Thoreau’s cabin

Site of Thoreau’s cabin

Site of Thoreau’s cabin

[edit] Beliefs

Thoreau memorial at Library Way, New York City

“Most of the luxuries and many of the so-called comforts of life are not only not indispensable, but positive hindrances to the elevation of mankind.”

— Thoreau^[49]

Thoreau was an early advocate of recreational hiking and canoeing, of conserving natural resources on private land, and of preserving wilderness as public land. Thoreau was also one of the first American supporters of Darwin‘s theory of evolution. He was not a strict vegetarian, though he said he preferred that diet^[50] and advocated it as a means of self-improvement. He wrote in Walden: “The practical objection to animal food in my case was its uncleanness; and besides, when I had caught and cleaned and cooked and eaten my fish, they seemed not to have fed me essentially. It was insignificant and unnecessary, and cost more than it came to. A little bread or a few potatoes would have done as well, with less trouble and filth.”^[51]
Thoreau neither rejected civilization nor fully embraced wilderness. Instead he sought a middle ground, the pastoral realm that integrates both nature and culture. His philosophy required that he be a didactic arbitration between the wilderness he based so much on and the spreading mass of North American humanity. He decried the latter endlessly but felt the teachers need to be close to those who needed to hear what he wanted to tell them. He was in many ways a ‘visible saint’, a point of contact with the wilds, even if the land he lived on had been gifted to him by Emerson and was far from cut-off. The wildness he enjoyed was the nearby swamp or forest, and he preferred “partially cultivated country.” His idea of being “far in the recesses of the wilderness” of Maine was to “travel the logger’s path and the Indian trail,” but he also hiked on pristine untouched land. In the essay “Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher” Roderick Nash writes: “Thoreau left Concord in 1846 for the first of three trips to northern Maine. His expectations were high because he hoped to find genuine, primeval America. But contact with real wilderness in Maine affected him far differently than had the idea of wilderness in Concord. Instead of coming out of the woods with a deepened appreciation of the wilds, Thoreau felt a greater respect for civilization and realized the necessity of balance.”^[52] On alcohol, Thoreau wrote: “I would fain keep sober always… I believe that water is the only drink for a wise man; wine is not so noble a liquor… Of all ebriosity, who does not prefer to be intoxicated by the air he breathes?”^[51]

[edit] Influence

A bust of Thoreau from the Hall of Fame for Great Americans at the Bronx Community College

Thoreau’s writings influenced many public figures. Political leaders and reformers like Mahatma Gandhi, President John F. Kennedy, civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr., Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, and Russian author Leo Tolstoy all spoke of being strongly affected by Thoreau’s work, particularly Civil Disobedience. So did many artists and authors including Edward Abbey, Willa Cather, Marcel Proust, William Butler Yeats, Sinclair Lewis, Ernest Hemingway, Upton Sinclair,^[53]E. B. White, Lewis Mumford, ^[54]Frank Lloyd Wright, Alexander Posey^[55] and Gustav Stickley.^[56] Thoreau also influenced naturalists like John Burroughs, John Muir, E. O. Wilson, Edwin Way Teale, Joseph Wood Krutch, B. F. Skinner, David Brower and Loren Eiseley, whom Publisher’s Weekly called “the modern Thoreau.”^[57]Anarchist and feminist Emma Goldman also appreciated Thoreau and referred to him as “the greatest American anarchist.” English writer Henry Stephens Salt wrote a biography of Thoreau in 1890,which popularized Thoreau’s ideas in Britain: George Bernard Shaw, Edward Carpenter and Robert Blatchford were among those who became Thoreau enthusiasts as a result of Salt’s advocacy. ^[58]
Mahatma Gandhi first read Walden in 1906 while working as a civil rights activist in Johannesburg, South Africa. He told American reporter Webb Miller, “[Thoreau’s] ideas influenced me greatly. I adopted some of them and recommended the study of Thoreau to all of my friends who were helping me in the cause of Indian Independence. Why I actually took the name of my movement from Thoreau’s essay ‘On the Duty of Civil Disobedience,’ written about 80 years ago.”^[59]
Martin Luther King, Jr. noted in his autobiography that his first encounter with the idea of non-violent resistance was reading “On Civil Disobedience” in 1944 while attending Morehouse College. He wrote in his autobiography that it was

Here, in this courageous New Englander’s refusal to pay his taxes and his choice of jail rather than support a war that would spread slavery’s territory into Mexico, I made my first contact with the theory of nonviolent resistance. Fascinated by the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system, I was so deeply moved that I reread the work several times.

I became convinced that noncooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as is cooperation with good. No other person has been more eloquent and passionate in getting this idea across than Henry David Thoreau. As a result of his writings and personal witness, we are the heirs of a legacy of creative protest. The teachings of Thoreau came alive in our civil rights movement; indeed, they are more alive than ever before. Whether expressed in a sit-in at lunch counters, a freedom ride into Mississippi, a peaceful protest in Albany, Georgia, a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, these are outgrowths of Thoreau’s insistence that evil must be resisted and that no moral man can patiently adjust to injustice.^[60]

American psychologist B. F. Skinner wrote that he carried a copy of Thoreau’s Walden with him in his youth.^[61] and, in 1945, wrote Walden Two, a fictional utopia about 1,000 members of a community living together inspired by the life of Thoreau.^[62] Thoreau and his fellow Transcendentalists from Concord were a major inspiration of the composer Charles Ives. The 4th movement of the Concord Sonata for piano (with a part for flute, Thoreau’s instrument) is a character picture and he also set Thoreau’s words.^[63]

[edit] Anarchism

Anarchism started to have an ecological view mainly in the writings of Thoreau. In his book Walden “Many have seen in Thoreau one of the precursors of ecologism and anarcho-primitivism represented today in John Zerzan and Derrick Jensen. For George Woodcock this attitude can be also motivated by certain idea of resistance to progress and of rejection of the growing materialism which is the nature of american society in the mid XIX century.”^[64] Zerzan included Thoreau’s text “Excursions” (1863) in his edited compilation titled Against civilization: Readings and reflections from 1999.^[65] Anarchist and feminist Emma Goldman also appreciated Thoreau and referred to him as “the greatest American anarchist.”
Thoreau was an important influence on late 19th century anarchist naturism, the combination of anarchist and naturist philosophies.^[66][67] Mainly it had importance within individualist anarchist circles^[68][69] in Spain,^[66][67][68] France,^[68][70] and Portugal.^[71]

[edit] Critique

Henry David Thoreau
Core works and topics[show] Civil Disobedience Herald of Freedom The Last Days of John Brown Life Without Principle Paradise (to be) Regained A Plea for Captain John Brown Reform and the Reformers Remarks After the Hanging of John Brown The Service Sir Walter Raleigh Slavery in Massachusetts Thomas Carlyle and His Works Walden A Walk to Wachusett A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum The Writings of Henry D. Thoreau Thoreau Society
Related topics[show] Abolitionism · Anarchism Anarchism in the United States Civil disobedience Concord, Massachusetts Conscientious objection Direct action · Ecology Environmentalism History of tax resistance Individualist anarchism John Brown · Lyceum movement Nonviolent resistance Ralph Waldo Emerson Simple living · Tax resistance Tax resisters · Transcendentalism The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail Walden Pond
v • d • e

Thoreau’s ideas were not universally applauded by some of his contemporaries in literary circles.
Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson judged Thoreau’s endorsement of living alone in natural simplicity, apart from modern society, to be a mark of effeminacy:

…Thoreau’s content and ecstasy in living was, we may say, like a plant that he had watered and tended with womanish solicitude; for there is apt to be something unmanly, something almost dastardly, in a life that does not move with dash and freedom, and that fears the bracing contact of the world. In one word, Thoreau was a skulker. He did not wish virtue to go out of him among his fellow-men, but slunk into a corner to hoard it for himself. He left all for the sake of certain virtuous self-indulgences.^[72]

Nathaniel Hawthorne was particularly critical of Thoreau. He wrote that Thoreau, “has repudiated all regular modes of getting a living, and seems inclined to lead a sort of Indian life among civilized men- an Indian life, I mean, as respects the absence of any systematic effort for a livelihood”.^[73] He would later criticize his writing ability by saying, “There is one chance in a thousand that he might write a most excellent and readable book,” but if he did it would be “a book of simple observation of nature, somewhat in the vein of White’s History of Selborne“.^[74]
Poet John Greenleaf Whittier detested what he deemed to be the message of Walden, decreeing that Thoreau wanted man to “lower himself to the level of a woodchuck and walk on four legs.” He went further to castigate the work as “very wicked and heathenish”, remarking “I prefer walking on two legs.”^[75]
In response to such criticisms, English novelist George Eliot, writing for the Westminster Review, characterized such critics as uninspired and narrow-minded:

People—very wise in their own eyes—who would have every man’s life ordered according to a particular pattern, and who are intolerant of every existence the utility of which is not palpable to them, may pooh-pooh Mr. Thoreau and this episode in his history, as unpractical and dreamy.^[76]

[edit] Works

Bird eggs found by Thoreau and given to the Boston Society of Natural History. Those in the nest are of yellow warbler, the other two of red-tailed hawk

• Aulus Persius Flaccus (1840)^[77]
• The Service (1840)^[78]
• A Walk to Wachusett (1842)^[79]
• Paradise (to be) Regained (1843)^[80]
• The Landlord (1843)^[81]
• Sir Walter Raleigh (1844)
• Herald of Freedom (1844)^[82]
• Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum (1845)^[83]
• Reform and the Reformers (1846–48)
• Thomas Carlyle and His Works (1847)^[84]
• A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (1849)^[85]
• Resistance to Civil Government, or Civil Disobedience (1849)^[86]
• An Excursion to Canada (1853)^[87]
• Slavery in Massachusetts (1854)^[88]
• Walden (1854)^[89]
• A Plea for Captain John Brown (1859)^[90]
• Remarks After the Hanging of John Brown (1859)^[91]
• The Last Days of John Brown (1860)^[92]
• Walking (1861)^[93]
• Autumnal Tints (1862)^[94]
• Wild Apples: The History of the Apple Tree (1862)^[95]
• Excursions (1863)^[96]
• Life Without Principle (1863)^[97]
• Night and Moonlight (1863)^[98]
• The Highland Light (1864)
• The Maine Woods (1864)^[99][100]
• Cape Cod (1865)^[101]
• Letters to Various Persons (1865)^{“http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoreau#cite_note-101”>[102]}
• A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-Slavery and Reform Papers (1866)^[103]
• Early Spring in Massachusetts (1881)
• Summer (1884)^[104]
• Winter (1888)^[105]
• Autumn (1892)^[106]
• Miscellanies (1894)^[107]
• Familiar Letters of Henry David Thoreau (1894)^[108]
• Poems of Nature (1895)
• Some Unpublished Letters of Henry D. and Sophia E. Thoreau (1898)
• The First and Last Journeys of Thoreau (1905)^[109][110]
• Journal of Henry David Thoreau (1906)^[111]
• The Correspondence of Henry David Thoreau edited by Walter Harding and Carl Bode (Washington Square: New York University Press, 1958)^[112]

[edit] See also

• American philosophy
• List of American philosophers

Herbert R. Axelrod (tropical fish)

Herbert R. Axelrod

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Herbert R. Axelrod
Born	June 7, 1927 Bayonne, New Jersey
Occupation	tropical fish expert, publisher of pet books, musical instrument collector, and entrepreneur
Ethnicity	Russian-Jewish
Citizenship	United States
Education	Ph.D.
Alma mater	New York University
Subjects	tropical fish

Herbert Richard Axelrod (b. June 7, 1927 in Bayonne, New Jersey) is a tropical fish expert, publisher of pet books, and entrepreneur. In 2005 he was sentenced in U.S. court to 18 months in prison for tax fraud.

Contents [show] 1 Early life 2 Publishing empire 3 Musical instruments collection 4 Further legal difficulties 5 Selected publications 6 References 7 External links

[edit] Early life

Axelrod was born to Russian-Jewish immigrant parents in New Jersey. His father was a mathematics and violin teacher, and his mother was a civilian employee of the U.S. Navy.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Publishing empire

While in Korea he wrote his book The Handbook of Tropical Aquarium Fishes. After returning from Korea, Axelrod earned a Ph.D. at New York University and started the magazine Tropical Fish Hobbyist. He wrote many other books on tropical fish and founded a publishing firm, TFH Publications (named for the magazine) that became the largest publisher of pet books in the world.^{[citation needed]} TFH Publications was headquartered first in Jersey City, New Jersey, then in Neptune, New Jersey.
In 1989 he donated his collection of fossil fish to the University of Guelph,^[1] which the university says is one of the largest donations by an individual to a Canadian university.^[2] The Axelrod Institute of Ichthyology at that university is named for him. Leonard P. Schultz discovered the cardinal tetra, a popular aquarium fish, in Brazil in 1956, and gave it its scientific name, Paracheirodon axelrodi, which honors Axelrod.^[3]
In 1997 Axelrod sold TFH Publications to Central Garden & Pet Company of California for $70 million. The contract included potential payouts to Axelrod if TFH reached earnings targets after the sale. He sued under that provision, accusing Central Garden of suppressing earnings to avoid paying the extra money. The following year, however, the purchaser filed a countersuit against him, claiming that he had grossly and illegally inflated the value of the company before the purchase.^[4] On September 1, 2005, Axelrod was ordered to pay Central Garden & Pet Company $16.4 million (net, after deducting $3.7 million the company was ordered to pay Axelrod due to earnings targets).^[5]

[edit] Musical instruments collection

The Axelrod quartet, on display in the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History.

Axelrod, a violinist himself, assembled a large collection of old and rare stringed instruments, including the Hellier Stradivarius. In 1975 he bought his first Stradivarius violin.^[1] In 1998 he donated four Stradivari instruments — two violins, a viola and a cello — to the Smithsonian Institution. Known as the Axelrod quartet, their value was estimated at $50 million.^[1] In February 2003 he sold about 30 other instruments to the New Jersey Symphony Orchestra (NJSO) for $18 million. This collection was estimated to be worth $49 million. (Axelrod was a long-time supporter of the NJSO.)

[edit] Further legal difficulties

Questions surfaced about the value of the instruments he had donated to the Smithsonian and the NJSO. Although the instruments were all old and valuable, several were determined not to be the instruments he represented them as, and not to be as valuable as he claimed. He was said to have invented histories for the instruments to explain away doubts or to increase their worth.^[6] On April 13, 2004, Axelrod was indicted in federal court in New Jersey, accused of funnelling millions of dollars into Swiss bank accounts over 20 years without paying taxes. The following April 21, he failed to appear for his arraignment, having fled to Cuba.^[1] He was arrested in Berlin on June 15, 2004 as he got off a plane from Switzerland,^[6] and then extradited to the United States. On March 21, 2005 he was sentenced in U.S. court to 18 months in prison for tax fraud.^[7][8]

[edit] Selected publications

• Handbook of Tropical Aquarium Fishes, McGraw-Hill, 1955.
• Saltwater Aquarium Fishes, TFH Publications, 1987. ISBN 0866224998
• Lovebirds As a New Pet, TFH Publications, 1990. ISBN 0866226176
• Swordtails and Platies, TFH Publications, 1991. ISBN 0866220909
• African Cichlids of Lakes Malawi and Tang, TFH Publications. ISBN 0876660219
• Aquarium Fishes of the World, TFH Publications, 1998. ISBN 0793804930
• Dr. Axelrod’s Atlas of Freshwater Aquarium Fishes, TFH Publications, 2004. ISBN 0793800331

[edit] References

1. ^ ^{a b c d} “Indicted Violin Donor Flees To Cuba -Axelrod”. http://www.fritz-reuter.com/articles/starledger/indictedviolindonorfleestocuba.htm#hit7. Retrieved 2008-12-14. 
2. ^ Exelrod page at the University of Guelph
3. ^ “Cardinal Tetra at Animal World”. http://animal-world.com/encyclo/fresh/characins/CardinalTetra.php. Retrieved 8 January 2010. 
4. ^ Cave, Damien (November 13, 2004). “The New York Times > New York Region > Once a Violin-Collecting Philanthropist, Now a Prisoner: A Fugitive Is Brought to Court”. http://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/13/nyregion/13violins.html. Retrieved 2008-12-14. 
5. ^ “Jurors decide Axelrod must pay $20.2M”. http://www.fritz-reuter.com/articles/axelrod/jurorsdecideaxelrodmustpay.htm. Retrieved 2008-12-14. 
6. ^ ^{a b} “NJ.com: Special Projects”. http://www.nj.com/specialprojects/index.ssf?/specialprojects/falsenotes/falsenotes1.html. Retrieved 2008-12-14. 
7. ^ Smothers, Ronald (March 27, 2005). “BRIEFINGS: JUSTICE; PHILANTHROPIST SENTENCED – New York Times”. The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F03E1DE153FF934A15750C0A9639C8B63. Retrieved 2008-12-15. 
8. ^ “classical music – andante – herbert axelrod, who sold strads to new jersey symphony, sentenced to prison for tax fraud”. http://www.andante.com/article/article.cfm?id=25300. Retrieved 2008-12-15. 

[edit] External links

• University of Guelph Axelrod Institute of Ichthyology
• He’s trying to put his cares behind him (2004 interview in Havana by Brian Donohue of the New Jersey Star-Ledger)

[hide] v • d • e Aquarium and fishkeeping hobby Types Freshwater aquarium · Marine aquarium · Brackish-water aquarium · Community aquarium · Biotope · Reef aquarium Aquarium equipment and furniture Filter · Berlin Method · Protein skimmer · Deep sand bed · Heater · Refugium · Calcium reactor · Bog-wood and Driftwood · Airstone · Live rock · Substrate · Fishcam · Aquarium fish feeder · Aquarium lighting Fish terms Hardy fish · Dither fish · Algae eater · Bottom feeder · Tropical fish · Coldwater fish · Painted fish Fish food Feeder fish · Bloodworms · Brine shrimp · Tubifex tubifex · Daphnia · Infusoria Lists List of freshwater aquarium fish species · List of freshwater aquarium plant species · List of freshwater aquarium invertebrate species · List of marine aquarium fish species · List of brackish aquarium fish species · List of aquarium diseases · List of marine aquarium invertebrate species · List of freshwater aquarium amphibian species Other terms Aquascaping · Spawning triggers · Reef safe · MacQuarium · Bath treatment Aquarium magazines Practical Fishkeeping · Tropical Fish Hobbyist · Koi · Aquarium Fish International People Takashi Amano · Herbert R. Axelrod · Sven O. Kullander · Julian Sprung Aquarium related companies Tetra · Sera · Eheim · Hagen · Drs. Foster & Smith

Persondata
Name	Axelrod, Herbert R
Alternative names
Short description
Date of birth	June 7, 1927
Place of birth	Bayonne, New Jersey
Date of death
Place of death

Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_R._Axelrod“

Categories: American publishers (people) | American ichthyologists | 1927 births | Living people | Jewish American scientists | American people convicted of tax crimes

Henrik Ibsen [historical figure]

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Henrik Ibsen

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This article is about the Norwegian playwright and poet. For other persons named Ibsen, see Ibsen (disambiguation).

Henrik Ibsen
Ibsen in 1900
Born	Henrik Johan Ibsen 20 March 1828(1828-03-20) Skien, Norway
Died	23 May 1906(1906-05-23) (aged 78) Christiania (Oslo), Norway
Occupation	Playwright, poet, theatre director
Nationality	Norwegian
Genres	Naturalism
Notable work(s)	Peer Gynt (1867) A Doll’s House (1879) Ghosts (1881) An Enemy of the People (1882) The Wild Duck (1884) Hedda Gabler (1890)
Influences[show] Kierkegaard · Brandes · Jacobsen
Influenced[show] Chekhov · Stanislavski · Shaw · Brandes · Antoine · Lugné-Poe · Freud · Joyce · Miller · Williams · Ray
Signature

Henrik Ibsen (Norwegian pronunciation: [ˈhɛnɾɪk ˈɪpsən]; 20 March 1828 – 23 May 1906) was a major 19th-century Norwegian playwright, theatre director, and poet. He is often referred to as “the father” of modern drama and is one of the founders of Modernism in the theatre.^[1] His plays were considered scandalous to many of his era, when European theater was required to model strict mores of family life and propriety. Ibsen’s work examined the realities that lay behind many façades, revealing much that was disquieting to many contemporaries. It utilized a critical eye and free inquiry into the conditions of life and issues of morality. Ibsen is often ranked as one of the truly great playwrights in the European tradition, alongside Shakespeare.

Contents [show] 1 Family and youth 2 Life and writings 3 Death 3.1 Centenary 4 Works 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links

[edit] Family and youth

Ibsen was born to Knud Ibsen and Marichen Altenburg, a relatively well-to-do merchant family, in the small port town of Skien, Norway, which was primarily noted for shipping timber. He was a descendant of some of the oldest and most distinguished families of Norway, including the Paus family. Ibsen later pointed out his distinguished ancestors and relatives in a letter to critic and scholar Georg Brandes. Shortly after his birth his family’s fortunes took a significant turn for the worse. His mother turned to religion for solace, and his father began to suffer from severe depression. The characters in his plays often mirror his parents, and his themes often deal with issues of financial difficulty as well as moral conflicts stemming from dark secrets hidden from society.^{[citation needed]}
At fifteen, Ibsen left home. He moved to the small town of Grimstad to become an apprentice pharmacist and began writing plays. In 1846, when Ibsen was age 18, a liaison with a servant produced an illegitimate child, whom he later rejected. While Ibsen did pay some child support for fourteen years, he never met his illegitimate son, who ended up in similar difficult circumstances. Ibsen went to Christiania (later renamed Oslo) intending to matriculate at the university. He soon rejected the idea (his earlier attempts at entering university were blocked as he did not pass all his entrance exams), preferring to commit himself to writing. His first play, the tragedy Catiline (1850), was published under the pseudonym “Brynjolf Bjarme”, when he was only 20, but it was not performed. His first play to be staged, The Burial Mound (1850), received little attention. Still, Ibsen was determined to be a playwright, although the numerous plays he wrote in the following years remained unsuccessful.^{[citation needed]} Ibsen’s main inspiration in the early period, right up to Peer Gynt, is apparently Norwegian author Henrik Wergeland and the Norwegian folk tales as collected by Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe. In Ibsen’s youth, Wergeland was the most acclaimed, and by far the most read Norwegian poet and playwright.

[edit] Life and writings

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He spent the next several years employed at Det norske Theater (Bergen), where he was involved in the production of more than 145 plays as a writer, director, and producer. During this period he did not publish any new plays of his own. Despite Ibsen’s failure to achieve success as a playwright, he gained a great deal of practical experience at the Norwegian Theater, experience that was to prove valuable when he continued writing.
Ibsen returned to Christiania in 1858 to become the creative director of the Christiania Theatre. He married Suzannah Thoresen the same year and she gave birth to their only child, a son, Sigurd in 1859. The couple lived in very poor financial circumstances and Ibsen became very disenchanted with life in Norway. In 1864, he left Christiania and went to Sorrento in Italy in self-imposed exile. He was not to return to his native land for the next 27 years, and when he returned it was as a noted, but controversial, playwright.
His next play, Brand (1865), was to bring him the critical acclaim he sought, along with a measure of financial success, as was the following play, Peer Gynt (1867), to which Edvard Grieg famously composed incidental music and songs. Although Ibsen read excerpts of the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard and traces of the latter’s influence are evident in Brand, it was not until after Brand that Ibsen came to take Kierkegaard seriously. Initially annoyed with his friend Georg Brandes for comparing Brand to Kierkegaard, Ibsen nevertheless read Either/Or and Fear and Trembling. Ibsen’s next play Peer Gynt was consciously informed by Kierkegaard.^[2][3]
With success, Ibsen became more confident and began to introduce more and more of his own beliefs and judgments into the drama, exploring what he termed the “drama of ideas”. His next series of plays are often considered his Golden Age, when he entered the height of his power and influence, becoming the center of dramatic controversy across Europe.^{[citation needed]}

Ibsen photographed in Dresden ca. 1870.

Ibsen moved from Italy to Dresden, Germany in 1868, where he spent years writing the play he regarded as his main work, Emperor and Galilean (1873), dramatizing the life and times of the Roman emperor Julian the Apostate. Although Ibsen himself always looked back on this play as the cornerstone of his entire works, very few shared his opinion, and his next works would be much more acclaimed. Ibsen moved to Munich in 1875 and published A Doll’s House in 1879. The play is a scathing criticism of the marital roles accepted by men and women which characterized Ibsen’s society.
Ghosts followed in 1881, another scathing commentary on the morality of Ibsen’s society, in which a widow reveals to her pastor that she had hidden the evils of her marriage for its duration. The pastor had advised her to marry her fiancé despite his philandering, and she did so in the belief that her love would reform him. But his philandering continued right up until his death, and his vices are passed on to their son in the form of syphilis. The mention of v

enereal disease alone was scandalous, but to show how it could poison a respectable family was considered intolerable.^{[citation needed]}
In An Enemy of the People (1882), Ibsen went even further. In earlier plays, controversial elements were important and even pivotal components of the action, but they were on the small scale of individual households. In An Enemy, controversy became the primary focus, and the antagonist was the entire community. One primary message of the play is that the individual, who stands alone, is more often “right” than the mass of people, who are portrayed as ignorant and sheeplike. Contemporary society’s belief was that the community was a noble institution that could be trusted, a notion Ibsen challenged. In An Enemy of the People, Ibsen chastised not only the conservatism of society, but also the liberalism of the time. He illustrated how people on both sides of the social spectrum could be equally self-serving. An Enemy of the People was written as a response to the people who had rejected his previous work, Ghosts. The plot of the play is a veiled look at the way people reacted to the plot of Ghosts. The protagonist is a physician in a vacation spot whose primary draw is a public bath. The doctor discovers that the water is contaminated by the local tannery. He expects to be acclaimed for saving the town from the nightmare of infecting visitors with disease, but instead he is declared an ‘enemy of the people’ by the locals, who band against him and even throw stones through his windows. The play ends with his complete ostracism. It is obvious to the reader that disaster is in store for the town as well as for the doctor.
As audiences by now expected of him, his next play again attacked entrenched beliefs and assumptions; but this time, his attack was not against society’s mores, but against overeager reformers and their idealism. Always an iconoclast, Ibsen was equally willing to tear down the ideologies of any part of the political spectrum, including his own.^{[citation needed]}
The Wild Duck (1884) is by many considered Ibsen’s finest work, and it is certainly the most complex. It tells the story of Gregers Werle, a young man who returns to his hometown after an extended exile and is reunited with his boyhood friend Hjalmar Ekdal. Over the course of the play the many secrets that lie behind the Ekdals’ apparently happy home are revealed to Gregers, who insists on pursuing the absolute truth, or the “Summons of the Ideal”. Among these truths: Gregers’ father impregnated his servant Gina, then married her off to Hjalmar to legitimize the child. Another man has been disgraced and imprisoned for a crime the elder Werle committed. Furthermore, while Hjalmar spends his days working on a wholly imaginary “invention”, his wife is earning the household income.^{[citation needed]}
Ibsen displays masterful use of irony: despite his dogmatic insistence on truth, Gregers never says what he thinks but only insinuates, and is never understood until the play reaches its climax. Gregers hammers away at Hjalmar through innuendo and coded phrases until he realizes the truth; Gina’s daughter, Hedvig, is not his child. Blinded by Gregers’ insistence on absolute truth, he disavows the child. Seeing the damage he has wrought, Gregers determines to repair things, and suggests to Hedvig that she sacrifice the wild duck, her wounded pet, to prove her love for Hjalmar. Hedvig, alone among the characters, recognizes that Gregers always speaks in code, and looking for the deeper meaning in the first important statement Gregers makes which does not contain one, kills herself rather than the duck in order to prove her love for him in the ultimate act of self-sacrifice. Only too late do Hjalmar and Gregers realize that the absolute truth of the “ideal” is sometimes too much for the human heart to bear.^{[citation needed]}

Letter from Ibsen to his English reviewer and translator Edmund Gosse: “30.8.[18]99. Dear Mr. Gosse! It was to me a hearty joy to receive your letter. So I will finally personal meet you and your wife. I am at home every day in the morning until 1 o’clock. I am happy and surprised of your excellent Norwegian! Yours friendly obliged Henrik Ibsen.”

Late in his career Ibsen turned to a more introspective drama that had much less to do with denunciations of society’s moral values. In such later plays as Hedda Gabler (1890) and The Master Builder (1892), Ibsen explored psychological conflicts that transcended a simple rejection of current conventions. Many modern readers, who might regard anti-Victorian didacticism as dated, simplistic or hackneyed, have found these later works to be of absorbing interest for their hard-edged, objective consideration of interpersonal confrontation. Hedda Gabler and The Master Builder center on female protagonists whose almost demonic energy proves both attractive and destructive for those around them. Hedda Gabler is probably Ibsen’s most performed play, with the title role regarded as one of the most challenging and rewarding for an actress even in the present day. Hedda has a few similarities with the character of Nora in A Doll’s House, but many of today’s audiences and theater critics^[who?] feel that Hedda’s intensity and drive are much more complex and much less comfortably explained than what they view as rather routine feminism on the part of Nora.^{[citation needed]}
Ibsen had completely rewritten the rules of drama with a realism which was to be adopted by Chekhov and others and which we see in the theater to this day. From Ibsen forward, challenging assumptions and directly speaking about issues has been considered one of the factors that makes a play art rather than entertainment. He had a profound influence on the young James Joyce who venerates him in his early autobiographical novel “Stephen Hero”. Ibsen returned to Norway in 1891, but it was in many ways not the Norway he had left. Indeed, he had played a major role in the changes that had happened across society. The Victorian Age was on its last legs, to be replaced by the rise of Modernism not only in the theater, but across public life.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Death

On 23 May 1906, Ibsen died in Christiania (now Oslo) after a series of strokes. When his nurse assured a visitor that he was a little better, Ibsen sputtered “On the contrary” and then died.^{[citation needed]}
Ibsen was buried in Vår Frelsers gravlund (“The Graveyard of Our Savior”) in central Oslo.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Centenary

The 100th anniversary of Ibsen’s death in 2006 was commemorated with an “Ibsen year” in Norway and other countries.^[4][5]
On 23 May 2006, The Ibsen Museum (Oslo) reopened to the public the house where Ibsen had spent his last eleven years, completely restored with the original interior, colors, and decor.^[6]

[edit] Works

1850 Catiline (Catilina) 1850 The Burial Mound also known as The Warrior’s Barrow (Kjæmpehøjen) 1851 Norma (Norma) 1852 St. John’s Eve (Sancthansnatten) 1854 Lady Inger of Oestraat (Fru Inger til Østeraad) 1855 The Feast at Solhaug (Gildet paa Solhoug) 1856 Olaf Liljekrans (Olaf Liljekrans) 1857 The Vikings at Helgeland (Hærmændene paa Helgeland) 1862 Digte – only released collection of poetry, included “Terje Vigen“. 1862 Love’s Comedy (Kjærlighedens Komedie) 1863 The Pretenders (Kongs-Emnerne) 1866 Brand (Brand) 1867 Peer Gynt (Peer Gynt)

1869 The League of Youth (De unges Forbund) 1873 Emperor and Galilean (Kejser og Galilæer) 1877 Pillars of Society (Samfundets Støtter) 1879 A Doll’s House (Et Dukkehjem) 1881 Ghosts (Gengangere) 1882 An Enemy of the People (En Folkefiende) 1884 The Wild Duck (Vildanden) 1886 Rosmersholm (Rosmersholm) 1888 The Lady from the Sea (Fruen fra Havet) 1890 Hedda Gabler (Hedda Gabler) 1892 The Master Builder (Bygmester Solness) 1894 Little Eyolf (Lille Eyolf) 1896 John Gabriel Borkman (John Gabriel Borkman) 1899 When We Dead Awaken (Når vi døde vaagner)

[edit] See also

Problem play Realism

Literature portal Naturalism Nineteenth-century theatre

[edit] Notes

1. ^ On Ibsen’s role as “father of modern drama,” see “Ibsen Celebration to Spotlight ‘Father of Modern Drama'”. Bowdoin College. 2007-01-23. http://www.bowdoin.edu/news/events/archives/003725.shtml. Retrieved 2007-03-27. ; on Ibsen’s relationship to modernism, see Moi (2006, 1-36)
2. ^ Shapiro, Bruce. Divine Madness and the Absurd Paradox. (1990) ISBN 9780313272905
3. ^ Downs, Brian. Ibsen: The Intellectual Background (1946)
4. ^ http://www.norges-bank.no/templates/article____16310.aspx
5. ^ http://www.norway.sk/ARKIV/Old_web/ibsen/year/gala/
6. ^ http://www.ibsen.net/index.gan?id=11150148&subid=0

[edit] References

• Boyesen, Hjalmar Hjorth A Commentary on the Works of Henrik Ibsen (New York: Macmillan, 1894)
• Koht, Halvdan. The Life of Ibsen translated by Ruth Lima McMahon and Hanna Astrup Larsen. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York, 1931.
• Lucas, F. L. The Drama of Ibsen and Strindberg, Cassell, London, 1962. A useful introduction, giving the biographical background to each play and detailed play-by-play summaries and discussion for the theatre-goer (including the less well-known plays).
• Ferguson, Robert. Henrik Ibsen: A New Biography. Richard Cohen Books, London, 1996.
• Meyer, Michael. Ibsen. History Press Ltd., Stroud, 2004.
• Moi, Toril. 2006. Henrik Ibsen and the Birth of Modernism: Art, Theater, Philosophy. Oxford and New York: Oxford UP. ISBN 9780199202591.
• Haugan, Jørgen. Henrik Ibsens Metode:Den Indre Utvikling Gjennem Ibsens Dramatikk ( Norwegian: Gyldendal Norsk Forlag. 1977)

[edit] Further reading

• Ibsen: The Complete Major Prose Plays ( Rolf G. Fjelde, translator. Plume: 1978)
• Ibsen – 3 Plays (Kenneth McLeish & Stephen Mulrine, translators. Nick Hern Books: 2005)

[edit] External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Hen rik Ib sen

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Henrik Ibsen

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Henrik Ibsen

• The Ibsen Society of America Official Website
• Ibsen Studies The only international academic journal devoted to Ibsen
• Online course by Ibsen scholar Brian Johnston author of The Ibsen Cycle and To the Third Empire: Ibsen’s Early Drama
• Extensive resource in several languages from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs
• Works by or about Henrik Ibsen at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated)
• Works by Henrik Ibsen at Project Gutenberg (plain text and HTML)
• Henrik Ibsen at Project Gutenberg (the biography by Edmund Gosse)
• Henrik Ibsen – A Bibliography of Criticism and Biography, by Ina Ten Eyck Firkins, from Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Henrik Ibsen in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
• “Ibsen and His Discontents” – a critical, conservative view of Ibsen’s works, written by Theodore Dalrymple
• Ibsen Museum – Former home of the famous playwright is situated in Henrik Ibsen’s gate 26, across from the Royal Palace

[hide] v • d • e Works by Henrik Ibsen Catiline (1850) · The Burial Mound (Kjæmpehøjen) (1850) · Norma (1851) · St. John’s Eve (Sancthansnatten) (1852) · Lady Inger of Oestraat (Fru Inger til Østeraad) (1854) · The Feast at Solhaug (Gildet paa Solhoug) (1855) · Olaf Liljekrans (1856) · The Vikings at Helgeland (Hærmændene paa Helgeland) (1857) · Love’s Comedy (Kjærlighedens Komedie) (1862) · The Pretenders (Kongs-Emnerne) (1863) · Brand (1865) · Peer Gynt (1867) · The League of Youth (De unges Forbund) (1869) · Emperor and Galilean (Kejser og Galilæer) (1873) · The Pillars of Society (Samfundets støtter) (1877) · A Doll’s House (Et dukkehjem) (1879) · Ghosts (Gengangere) (1881) · An Enemy of the People (En Folkefiende) (1882) · The Wild Duck (Vildanden) (1884) · Rosmersholm (Rosmersholm) (1886) · The Lady from the Sea (Fruen fra havet) (1888) · Hedda Gabler (1890) · The Master Builder (Bygmester Solness) (1892) · Little Eyolf (1894) · John Gabriel Borkman (1896) · When We Dead Awaken (Når vi døde vågner) (1899)

Persondata
Name	Ibsen, Henrik Johann
Alternative names
Short description	Norwegian playwright
Date of birth	20 March 1828(1828-03-20)
Place of birth	Skien, Norway
Date of death	23 May 1906(1906-05-23)
Place of death	Kristiania

Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen“

Categories: Henrik Ibsen | Norwegian dramatists and playwrights | Modernist drama, theatre and performance | 19th-century theatre | 1828 births | 1906 deaths | Deaths from stroke | Cardiovascular disease deaths in Norway | Paus family | People from Skien | Burials at Vår Frelsers gravlund | 19th-century Norwegian people | Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav (pre-1906 restructure)

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Howard Hughes

History of Polish intelligence services

History of Polish intelligence services

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This article covers the history of Polish intelligence services dating back to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Contents [show] 1 Commonwealth 2 Partitions 3 1914–18 4 1918–21 5 1921–39 6 1939–45 7 1945–89 7.1 Civilian branches 7.2 Military branches 8 1989–present 8.1 Notable operations 9 Notable personnel 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links

[edit] Commonwealth

Though the first official Polish government service entrusted with espionage, intelligence and counter-intelligence was not formed until 1918, Poland and later the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had developed networks of informants in neighboring countries. Envoys and ambassadors had also gathered intelligence, often using bribery. Such agents included the 17th-century Polish poet Jan Andrzej Morsztyn.
Polish kings and Polish-Lithuanian military commanders (hetmans) such as Stanisław Koniecpolski maintained intelligence networks. The hetmans were responsible for intelligence-gathering in the Ottoman Empire, its vassal states and disputed territories such as Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania. Intelligence networks also operated in Muscovy and among the restless Cossacks.
In 1683, during the Battle of Vienna, the Polish merchant-spy Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki secured a promise of military assistance for Vienna, besieged by the Turkish forces of Kara Mustafa Pasha, and thus facilitated the victory of a Christian European coaltion led by Polish King Jan III Sobieski. Kulczycki is reported to hav

e received as reward for his services the Turks’ supplies of coffee beans and to have established Vienna’s first coffee house.

[edit] Partitions

During the period when Poland had been partitioned (beginning in 1772, until 1918) by three adjacent empires, intelligence played an important role in patriotic Poles’ surveillance of their occupiers and in their planning and conduct of successive Polish uprisings.

[edit] 1914–18

In 1914 Józef Piłsudski created the Polish Military Organization, an intelligence and special-operations organization which worked alongside the Polish Legions. As such, it was independent of Austro-Hungary and loyal to Piłsudski and to a future independent Poland.

[edit] 1918–21

Immediately upon achieving independence in 1918, Poland established armed forces. Reflecting the influence of the French Military Mission to Poland, the Polish General Staff was divided into divisions entrusted with specific tasks:

1. Oddział I (Division I) – Organization and mobilization;
2. Oddział II (Division II) – Intelligence and counterintelligence;
3. Oddziału III (Division III) – Training and operations;
4. Oddział IV (Division IV) – Quartermaster.

Division II (colloquially, “Dwójka,” “Two”) was formed in October 1918, even before Poland had declared her independence. Initially called the “General Staff Information Department,” Division II was divided into sections (sekcje):

• Sekcja I – Reconnaissance and close intelligence;
• Sekcja II
  • IIa (East) – Offensive intelligence for Bolshevik Russia, Lithuania, the Belarusian People’s Republic, Ukraine and Galicia;
  • IIb (West) – Offensive intelligence for Austria, Germany, France and the United Kingdom;
• Sekcja III – General intelligence and surveillance abroad (East and West);
• Sekcja IV – Preparation of a front-line bulletin;
• Sekcja V – Contacts with military and civilian authorities;
• Sekcja VI – Contacts with attachés in Berlin, Vienna, Budapest, Moscow and Kiev;
• Sekcja VII – Ciphers (i.e., cryptology).

An extensive network of domestic and foreign informants developed rapidly. This was due to Poland’s poor economic situation, itself the result of over a century of foreign occupation. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Poland’s economic and political situation had forced hundreds of thousands to emigrate. With the advent of Polish independence, many émigrés offered their services to Polish intelligence agencies. Others Poles who had been living in the former Russian Empire and were now making their way home through war-torn Russia, provided priceless intelligence on the logistics, order of battle and status of the parties in the Russian Civil War.
In Western Europe (especially in Germany, France and Belgium) the Polish diaspora often formed the backbone of heavy industry; some one million people of Polish descent lived in the Ruhr Valley alone. Many of these provided intelligence on industrial production and economic conditions.
After the outbreak of the Polish-Soviet War in early 1919, intelligence from the east proved vital to Poland’s survival against a far superior enemy. A separate organization was formed within Polish Intelligence, taking over most intelligence duties for the duration of the war. This was a Biuro Wywiadowcze (Intelligence Bureau) comprising seven departments:

1. Organisation;
2. Offensive Intelligence “A”;
3. Offensive Intelligence “B”;
4. Offensi

   ve Intelligence “C”;

5. Defensive Intelligence;
6. Internal propaganda;
7. Counterintelligence.

The fourth department, Offensive Intelligence “C”, became the most developed because it carried out all the duties connected with “front-line” reconnaissance and intelligence, as well as “long-range” intelligence and surveillance in countries surrounding Bolshevik Russia, including Siberia (still in the hands of the White Russians), Turkey, Persia, China, Mongolia and Japan.
The third department, Offensive Intelligence “B,” controlled an intelligence network in European Russia.
Additional intelligence was obtained from Russian defectors and prisoners of war who crossed the Polish lines in their thousands, especially after the 1920 Battle of Warsaw.

[edit] 1921–39

See also: Prometheism

After the Polish–Soviet War and the Treaty of Riga, Polish Intelligence had to restructure to cope with new challenges. Though Poland had won most of her border conflicts (most notably the war with Russia and the Greater Poland Uprising of 1918-19 against Germany), her international situation was unenviable. By mid-1921, Section II had been restructured into three main departments, each overseeing a number of offices:

• Organization Department:

1. Organization;
2. Training;
3. Personnel;
4. Finances;
5. Polish ciphers and codes, communication, and foreign press.

• Information Department:

1. East;
2. West;
3. North;
4. South;
5. Statistics office;
6. Nationalities and minorities;

• Intelligence Department:

1. Intelligence technology;
2. Central agents’ bureau;
3. Counterintelligence;
4. Foreign cryptography (Biuro Szyfrów);
5. Radio intelligence and wire-tapping.

Until the late 1930s the Soviet Union was seen as the most likely aggressor and Poland’s main adversary. Section II developed an extensive network of agents within Poland’s eastern neighbor and other adjoining countries. In the early 1920s Polish intelligence began developing a network for “offensive intelligence.” The Eastern Office (Referat “Wschód”) had several dozen bureaus, mostly attached to Polish consulates in Moscow, Kiev, Leningrad, Kharkov and Tbilisi.
Short-range reconnaissance was carried out by the Border Defense Corps, created in 1924. On a number of occasions, soldiers crossed the border disguised as smugglers, partisans or bandits. They gathered information on the disposition of Soviet troops and the morale of the Soviet populace. At the same time, Soviet forces carried out analogous missions on Polish soil. The situation finally stabilized in 1925; however, such missions continued to occur occasionally.
Polish Intelligence produced fairly accurate pictures of the capabilities of Poland’s main potential adversaries—Germany and the Soviet Union. Nonetheless, this information was of little avail when war came in September 1939. Good intelligence could not offset the overwhelming superiority of the German and Soviet armed forces. The conquest of Poland took four weeks—too short a time for intelligence services to make a significant contribution. With Poland conquered, her intelligence services had to evacuate their headquarters to allied French and British territories.

[edit] 1939–45

Main article: Polish contribution to World War II

Until 1939 Polish intelligence services did not, as a rule, collaborate with the intelligence services of other countries. A partial exception was France, Poland’s closest ally; even then cooperation was lukewarm, with neither side sharing their most precious secrets. An important exception was the long-term collaboration between France’s Gustave Bertrand and Poland’s Cipher Bureau, headed by Gwido Langer. The situation only began to change in 1939, when war appeared certain and Britain and France entered into a formal military alliance with Poland. The most important result of the subsequent information-sharing was the disclosure to France and Britain of Polish techniques and equipment for breaking German Enigma machine ciphers.
The initial break into the Enigma ciphers had been made in late 1932 by mathematician Marian Rejewski, working for the Polish General Staff’s Cipher Bureau. His work was facilitated, perhaps decisively, by intelligence provided by Bertrand. With the help of fellow mathematicians Henryk Zygalski and Jerzy Różycki, Rejewski developed techniques to decrypt German Enigma-enciphered messages on a
regular and timely basis.
Six-and-a-half years after the initial Polish decryption of Enigma ciphers, French and British intelligence representatives were briefed on Polish achievements at a trilateral conference held at Cipher Bureau facilities in the Kabaty Woods, just south of Warsaw, on July 26, 1939, barely five weeks before the outbreak of World War II. This formed the basis for early Enigma decryption by the British at Bletchley Park, northwest of London. Without the head start provided by Poland, British reading of Enigma encryptions might have been delayed several years, if it would have gotten off the ground at all.
Key Polish Cipher Bureau personnel escaped from Poland on September 17, 1939, on the Soviet Union’s entry into eastern Poland, and eventually reached France. There, at “PC Bruno” outside Paris, they resumed cracking Enigma ciphers through the “Phony War” (October 1939 — May 1940). Following the fall of northern France to the Germans, the Polish-French-Spanish cryptological organization, sponsored by French Major Gustave Bertrand, continued its work at “Cadix” in the Vichy “Free Zone” until it was occupied by German forces in November 1942.
After the 1939 invasion of Poland, practically all of the General Staff’s Section II (Intelligence) command apparatus managed to escape to Romania and soon reached France and Britain. Reactivating agent networks throughout Europe, they immediately began cooperating with French and British intelligence agencies. After the subsequent fall of France, most of Section II ended up in Britain.
At that time Britain was in a difficult situation, badly in need of intelligence from occupied Europe after rapid German advances had disrupted its networks and put German forces into areas where Britain had few agents. Following the personal intervention of Churchill and Sikorski in September 1940, cooperation between British and Polish intelligence organizations entered a new phase.
The Poles placed their Section II at the disposal of the British, but as a quid pro quo requested and obtained (at that time without any reservations) the right to use, without British oversight, their own ciphers which they had developed in France. The Poles were the only Allied country that was given this unique status, though as the war progressed it was challenged by some agencies of the British government. Due to support from members of the British Special Operations Executive, the Poles kept their ciphers to the end of hostilities.^[1]
In the first half of 1941 Polish agents in France supplied Britain with intelligence on U-boat movements from French Atlantic ports. The Polish network in France grew to 1,500 members and, before and during Operation Overlord, supplied vital information about the German military in France. Agents working in Poland in the spring of 1941 supplied extensive intelligence about German preparations to invade the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa).
Polish spies also documented German atrocities being perpetrated at Auschwitz (Witold Pilecki‘s report) and elsewhere in Poland against Jewish and non-Jewish populations. Polish intelligence gave the British crucial information on Germany’s secret-weapons projects, including the V-1 and V-2 rockets, enabling Britain to set back these German programs by bombing the main development facility at Peenemünde in 1943. Poland’s networks supplied the western Allies with intelligence on nearly all aspects of the German war effort. Of 45,770 reports received by British intelligence during the war, nearly half (22,047) came from Polish agents.
On March 15, 1946, Section II was officially disbanded, and its archives were taken over by Britain. At Section II’s dissolution, it had 170 officers and 3,500 agents, excluding headquarters staff. Very likely at least some of the Polish agents continued working directly for Britain during the Cold War.
The Polish intelligence contribution to Britain’s war effort was kept secret due to Cold War exigencies. In later years, as official British histories were released, the Polish intelligence role barely rated a mention. Only when British wartime decryption of Enigma ciphers was made public in the 1970s, did a Polish contribution begin to become known; even then, however, the early versions published in Britain (and some versions even to the end of the 20th century) claimed that Polish intelligence had only been able to steal a German Enigma machine. The truth, which had previously been disclosed in Bertrand‘s book and would later be detailed in papers by Marian Rejewski (who had survived the war and lived to 1980), made slow headway against British and American obfuscations, mendacities and fabrications.^[2] The Polish Enigma-breaking effort had been much more sophisticated than those English-language accounts made out, and had in fact relied largely on mathematical analysis.
Historians’ efforts to gain access to documentation of other Polish intelligence operations met with British stonewalling and with claims that the pertinent Polish archives had been destroyed by the British.
More recently, the British and Polish governments have begun jointly producing an accurate account of the Polish intelligence contribution to Britain’s war effort. The key Anglo-Polish Historical Committee Report on the subject was published in July 2005. It was written by leading historians and experts who had been granted unprecedented access to British intelligence archives. The report concluded that 43 percent of all reports received by British secret services from continental Europe in 1939-45 had come from Polish sources^[3]

See also: Home Army and V1 and V2

[edit] 1945–89

Main articles: Główny Zarząd Informacji Wojska Polskiego, Służba Bezpieczeństwa, and Ministerstwo Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego

[edit] Civilian branches

On occupying Poland and installaing a puppet government, the Soviet Union created new Polish intelligence and internal-security agencies. The Soviet special services had begun training Polish officers as early as 1943. That year, some 120 Poles had begun training at an NKVD school in Kuybyshev (now Samara). At the same time, in NKVD-NKGB schools all over the USSR, hundreds of Germans, Romanians, Czechoslovaks and Bulgarians had also undergone the same training in order to prepare them for work in future special services in their respective countries.
In July 1944 in Moscow the temporary Polish puppet government was established by the name of the Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego), or PKWN. The PKWN was organized as thirteen departments (resorty). One of them was the Department of Public Security (Resort Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego), or RBP, headed by long-time Polish communist Stanisław Radkiewicz. The largest and the most important department in the RBP, Department 1, was responsible for counter-espionage and headed by Roman Romkowski. By September 1945 Department 1 had become so large that three additional departments were created, as well as two separate Sections. By the close of 1944, the Department of Public Security totaled 3000 employees.
On December 31, 1944, the PKWN was joined by several members of the Polish government in exile, among them Stanisław Mikołajczyk. It was then transformed into the Provisional Government of Republic of Poland (Rząd Tymczasowy Republiki Polskiej, or RTRP), and the departments were renamed as ministries.
The Ministry of Public Security was responsible for both intelligence and counter-espionage, as well as surveillance of citizens and suppression of dissent. They generally did not employ former officers of the “Dwojka” or follow the traditions of pre-war Polish intelligence services. Personnel were recruited for their “political reliability”. New formations were trained by Soviet NKVD experts. Additionally, and especially in the early years (1945–49), Soviet officers in Polish uniforms overlooked their operations. After Stalin‘s death in 1953 and the later defection of Col. Józef Światło, the Ministry of Public Security was canceled and replaced by two separate administrations – the Committee for Public Security (Komitet do Spraw Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego, or Kds.BP) and the Ministry of Internal Affairs (Ministerstwo Spraw Wewnętrznych or MSW).
The Kds.BP was responsible for intelligence and government protection and. From September 3, 1955 to 28 November, 1956, the Main Directorate of Information of the Polish Army (Główny Zarząd Informacji Wojska Polskiego), which was responsible for the military police and counter-espionage agency, was also controlled by the Kds.BP. The MSW was responsible for the supervision of local governments, Militsiya, correctional facilities, fire rescue and the border and internal guards.
The next big changes came in 1956. The Committee for Public Security was canceled and the Ministry of Internal Affairs took over their responsibilities. The MSW assumed control of the political police, under the Służba Bezpieczeństwa.
From 1956 to the fall of communism in Poland the MSW was one of the biggest and strongest administrations. During this period its responsibilities included intelligence, counter-espionage, anti-state activity (SB), government protection, confidential communications, supervision of the local governments, militsiya, correctional facilities, and fire rescue. The Ministry of Internal Affairs was divided into departments. The most important of these were the first second and third department

s. The first dealt with foreign operations and intelligence gathering, the second with spy activities both by Poland and other countries and the third was responsible for anti-state activities and the protection of the country’s secrets.
With the exception of its own departments and sections, the MSW also had control over the Militsiya (Komenda Główna Milicji Obywatelskiej or KG/MO), fire rescue (Komenda Główna Straży Pożarnych or KG/SP), territorial anti-aircraft defense, (Komenda Główna Terenowej Obrony Przeciwlotniczej KG/TOP), management of geodesy and cartography, (Główny Zarząd Geodezji i Kartografii) and health services (Centralny Zarząd Służby Zdrowia). Ministry of Internal Affairs also had control over the command of the Internal Security Corp. (Dowództwo Korpusu Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego or KBW), command of the Border Guard (Dowództwo Wojsk Ochrony Pogranicza or KOP), and management of Information of Internal Troops (Zarząd Informacji Wojsk Wewnetrznych). Through the 1980s the MSW had 24,390 staff in Security Services, 62,276 in the Citizen’s Militsiya, 12,566 in Motorized Reserves of the Citizens Militia (Zmotoryzowane Odwody Milicji Obywatelskiej, or ZOMO), 20,673 in Administratively-Economic Units (Jednostki administracyjno-gospodarcze) and 4,594 in ministry schools, not including students.

[edit] Military branches

The first military special services in Poland after World War II were created in 1943 as part of the Polish Military in the USSR. First organ that dealt with military counterespionage was called Directorate of Information by the commander-in-chief of the Polish Army (Zarząd Informacji Naczelnego Dowódcy Wojska Polskiego, or ZI NDWP). On November 30, 1944, the commander-in-chief of the Polish Army, general Michał Rola-Żymierski, transformed the ZI NDWP into the Main Directorate of Information of the Polish Army (Główny Zarząd Informacji Wojska Polskiego, or GZI WP) in his 95th order. From 30 November, 1950, the GZI WP became the Main Directorate of Information of the Ministry of Defense (Główny Zarząd Informacji Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, or GZI MON). In September 1955 GZI MON became part of the Committee for Public Security (Komitet do spraw Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego), which was the successor of Ministerstwo Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego, more commonly known as the Urząd Bezpieczeństwa or UB, and the name was changed to the Main Directorate of Information of the Committee for Public Security, or GZI KdsBP. In November 1956 the GZI Kds.BP separated from the Committee for Public Security, and returned to its previous role, becoming again the Main Directorate of Information of the Ministry of Defense. After the reform instituted by Władysław Gomułka in 1956, and the role the GZI played in repressions and executions, the Main Directorate of Information of Ministry of Defense was canceled in 1957 and replaced by the Military Internal Service (Wojskowa Służba Wewnętrzna, or WSW). The WSW continuously operated as the main military police and counterespionage service until the fall of communism in Poland.
The first Polish Military Intelligence after World War II was the Second Section of General Staff of the Polish People’s Army (Oddział II Sztabu Generalnego Ludowego Wojska Polskiego, or Odział II Szt Gen LWP) and bore the same name as its precursor from before the war. Odział II Szt Gen WP was establish on July 18, 1945, but its origins can be traced to May 1943, when the first reconnaissance company was created in Polish Army units in the USSR. Between July 1947 and June 5, 1950, the Second Section of General Staff of the Polish People’s Army operated within the structure of the Ministry of Public Security together with the civilian intelligence branch as Department VII. On June 5, 1950, it returned to the Ministry of Defense. The first head of Odział II Szt Gen WP was Colonel Gieorgij Domeradzki. In November 1945 this position was occupied by General Wacław Komar, and between October 1950 and March 1951 by soviet officer Konstantin Kahnikov. The last commander of the Second Section of General Staff of the Polish People’s Army was Igor Suchacki.
On November 15, 1951, Polish Defence Minister Konstantin Rokossovsky (in his 88th order) transformed the Second Section of General Staff of the Polish People’s Army to Second Directorate of General Staff of the Polish Army (Zarząd II Sztabu Generalnego Wojska Polskiego). Internal organization was transformed from sections to directorates and intelligence work among the United States, Great Britain, the Federal Republic of Germany, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland and Austria was expanded to countries such as Norway, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Turkey and Israel. In 1990 the Second Directorate of General Staff of the Polish Army was join with the Military Internal Service (Wojskowa Służba Wewnętrzna, or WSW), in order to have intelligence and counter-intelligence working under one structure as the
Second Directorate for Intelligence and Counter-intelligence (Zarząd II Wywiadu i Kontrwywiadu). In 1991 the Second Directorate for Intelligence and Counter-intelligence was transformed into Military Information Services (Wojskowe Służby Informacyjne, or WSI), and continues to function under this name.

[edit] 1989–present

After the changes of 1989 the Służba Bezpieczeństwa was disbanded by the first free government under the prime minister, Tadeusz Mazowiecki. A new agency, called the State Protection Office (Urząd Ochrony Państwa, or UOP) was formed and staffed mainly by the former SB officers who successfully passed a verification procedure. Its mission was primarily general espionage and intelligence gathering as well as counter-espionage and fighting against high ranked organized crime. It was commanded by a career intelligence officer but was directly supervised by a civilian government official, Coordinator for the Special Services.
Most of the time the agency evaded public attention, although it was dragged into political fighting over appointments of its chiefs, lustration and some perceived failures with organized crime cases. In 2002 the new, post-communist left-wing government reorganized the special services by dividing them into two agencies; the Internal Security Agency (Agencja Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego) and Intelligence Agency (Agencja Wywiadu). The move was widely perceived as a way of cleansing the higher ranks of the officers appointed by previous right-wing governments.
The military intelligence continued to function under a slightly altered name (Wojskowe Służby Informacyjne– Military Information Services) and without much organizational change; at least none that was visible to the general public. The new Polish conservative government declared dissolution of the WSI and creating new services in October 2005, since the agency skipped serious external reforms after the collapse of communism in 1989. Throughout the transformation the WSI were allegedly involved in dubious operations, arms sales to UN-sanctioned states and corruption scandals. In 2006 the WSI was split into Służba Kontrwywiadu Wojskowego and Służba Wywiadu Wojskowego.

[edit] Notable operations

• Operation Simoom, 1990

[edit] Notable personnel

• Feliks Ankerstein
• Edmund Charaszkiewicz.
• Roman Czerniawski
• Józef Englicht
• Jan Kowalewski.
• Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki
• Kazimierz Leski
• Jan Leśniak.
• Stefan Mayer.
• Wiktor Michałowski.
• Tadeusz Pełczyński
• Tadeusz Puszczyński
• Tadeusz Schaetzel
• Zbigniew Siemiątkowski
• Mieczysław Zygfryd Słowikowski.
• Halina Szymańska

[edit] See also

• Biuro Szyfrów (Polish General Staff Cipher Bureau)
• History of the Polish Army.
• Stare Kiejkuty, home of military unit 2669; allegedly involved in the CIA’s network of extraordinary renditions.
• List of Poles

Halley’s Comet

Halley’s Comet

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  (Redirected from Halley’s comet)

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1P/Halley (Halley’s Comet)

Discovery
Discovered by	prehistoric (observation); Edmond Halley (recognition of periodicity)
Orbital characteristics[1]
Epoch 2449400.5 (17 February 1994)
Aphelion	35.1 AU (9 December 2023)[2]
Perihelion	0.586 AU last perihelion: 9 February 1986 next perihelion: 28 July 2061[2]
Semi-major axis	17.8 AU
Eccentricity	0.967
Orbital period	75.3 a[1]
Inclination	162.3°
Physical characteristics
Dimensions	15×8 km,[3] 11 km (mean)[1]
Mass	2.2 × 1014kg[4]
Mean density	0.6[5] (estimates range from 0.2 to 1.5 g/cm3[6])
Sidereal rotation period	2.2 d (52.8 h) (?)[7]
Albedo	0.04[8]
Apparent magnitude	28.2 (in 2003)[9]

Halley’s Comet or Comet Halley (officially designated 1P/Halley)^[1] is the best-known of the short-period comets, and is visible from Earth every 75 to 76 years.^[1][10] Halley is the only short-period comet that is clearly visible to the naked eye from Earth, and thus the o

nly naked-eye comet that might appear twice in a human lifetime.^[11] Other naked-eye comets may be brighter and more spectacular, but will appear only once in thousands of years.
Halley’s returns to the inner solar system have been observed and recorded by astronomers since at least 240 BC, and perhaps as early as 466 BC.^[12] Clear records of the comet’s appearances were made by Chinese, Babylonian, and medieval European chroniclers, but were not recognized as reappearances of the same object at the time. The comet’s periodicity was first determined in 1705 by English astronomer Edmond Halley, after whom it is now named. Halley’s Comet last appeared in the inner Solar System in 1986 and will next appear in mid-2061.^[13]
During its 1986 apparition, Halley became the first comet to be observed in detail by spacecraft, providing the first observational data on the structure of a comet nucleus and the mechanism of coma and tail formation.^[14][15] These observations supported a number of longstanding hypotheses about comet construction, particularly Fred Whipple‘s “dirty snowball” model, which correctly surmised that Halley would be composed of a mixture of volatile ices — such as water, carbon dioxide and ammonia — and dust. However, the missions also provided data which substantially reformed and reconfigured these ideas; for instance it is now understood that Halley’s surface is largely composed of dusty, non-volatile materials, and that only a small portion of it is icy.

Contents [show] 1 Pronunciation 2 Computation of orbit 3 Orbit and origin 4 Structure and composition 5 Apparitions 5.1 Prior to 66 AD 5.2 66–989 AD 5.3 1066 5.4 1145–1456 5.5 1531–1835 5.6 1910 5.7 1986 5.8 After 1986 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links

[edit] Pronunciation

Halley is generally pronounced /ˈhæli/, rhyming with valley, or /ˈheɪli/ rhyming with daily,^[16] but Edmond Halley himself probably pronounced his name /ˈhɔːli/ Hawley, as in the word “hall”.^[17]

[edit] Computation of orbit

Halley’s Comet was the first comet to be recognized as periodic. Until the Renaissance, the philosophical consensus on the nature of comets, promoted by Aristotle, was that they were disturbances in the Earth’s atmosphere. This idea was disproved in 1577 by Tycho Brahe, who used parallax measurements to show that comets must lie above the Moon. However, many were still unconvinced that comets actually orbited the Sun, and assumed they must instead follow straight paths through the Solar System.^[18]
In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton published his Principia, in which he outlined his laws of gravity and motion. However, his work on comets was decidedly incomplete. Although he had suspected that two comets that had appeared in succession in 1680 and 1681 were in fact the same comet before and after passing behind the Sun (he was later found to be correct; see Newton’s Comet),^[19] he was unable to completely reconcile comets into his model. Ultimately, it was Newton’s friend, editor and publisher, Edmond Halley who, in his 1705 Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets, used Newton’s new laws to calculate the gravitational effects of Jupiter and Saturn on cometary orbits.^[20] This calculation enabled him, after examining historical records, to determine that the orbital elements of a second comet which had appeared in 1682, were nearly the same as those of two comets which had appeared in 1531 (observed by Petrus Apianus) and 1607 (observed by Johannes Kepler).^[20] Halley thus concluded that all three comets were in fact the same object returning every 76 years, a period that has since been amended to every 75–76 years. After a rough estimate of the perturbations the comet would sustain from the gravitational attraction of the planets, he predicted its return for 1758.^[21]
Halley’s prediction of the comet’s return proved to be correct, although it was not seen until 25 December 1758, by Johann Georg Palitzsch, a German farmer and amateur astronomer. It did not pass through its perihelion until 13 March 1759, the attraction of Jupiter and Saturn having caused a retardation of 618 days.^[22] This effect was computed (with a one-month error to 13 April)^[23] by a team of three French mathematicians, Alexis Clairault, Joseph Lalande, and Nicole-Reine Lepaute,^[24] previous to its return. Halley did not live to see the comet again as he died in 1742.^[25] The confirmation of the comet’s return was the first time anything other than planets had been shown to orbit the Sun. It was also one of the earliest successful tests of Newtonian physics, and a clear demonstration of its explanatory power.^[26] The comet was first named in Halley’s honour by French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille in 1759.^[26]
The possibility has been raised that 1st-century Jewish astronomers had already recognized Halley’s Comet as periodic.^[27] This theory notes a passage in the Talmud^[28] which refers to “a star which appears once in seventy years that makes the captains of the ships err”.^[29]